Effectiveness of Dignity Therapy in Patients with Advanced Cancer Receiving Palliative Care: A Systematic Review

Article / Artículo

https://doi.org/10.33821/826



Abstract

Introduction:

Dignity Therapy (DT) is a brief psychotherapeutic intervention designed to relieve existential suffering and enhance identity and self-worth in end-of-life patients. Its application in palliative oncology has yielded variable results, warranting an updated synthesis of evidence.

Material and Methods:

A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 and registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251109555). Randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies evaluating DT in adults with advanced or terminal cancer were included. The primary outcome was perceived dignity; secondary outcomes included anxiety, depression, spiritual well-being, hope, and quality of life. Methodological quality was assessed using ROB2 and ROBINS-I tools.

Results:

Ten studies with 904 patients from America, Europe, and Asia were analyzed. No statistically significant differences were found in perceived dignity; however, most studies reported improvements in emotional well-being, hope, and spirituality, with good feasibility and acceptability of the intervention.

Conclusions:

Despite heterogeneity across studies, DT provides meaningful emotional and existential benefits for patients with advanced cancer. It represents an ethical and humanizing intervention that should be integrated into palliative care programs, while further multicenter research is encouraged to strengthen current evidence.

Keywords:

Neoplasms, Dignity therapy, Palliative care, Terminal care, Psychotherapy



1. Introduction

The terminal phase of cancer represents a complex process, in which physical suffering coexists with emotional distress, a high likelihood of loss of meaning, and an existential crisis linked to the imminence of death. In this context, palliative care constitutes a comprehensive approach (physical, psychological, social, and spiritual) aimed at improving quality of life for patients and their families [1].

Among emerging interventions in this field, Dignity Therapy (DT) has gained recognition as a brief, person-centered psychotherapeutic tool designed to alleviate existential distress and promote a sense of worth, continuity of self, and legacy in patients at the end of life [2,3]. Developed by Chochinov et al. in 2005, DT is structured around a semi-structured interview whose responses are transcribed and edited to generate a document that can be shared with whomever the patient chooses, functioning as a “life testimony” [4,5].

Numerous studies have described benefits of DT, such as reductions in anxiety and depression, improvements in spiritual well-being, and enhanced perception of meaning and personal control in the face of impending death [6-8]. However, its implementation across different clinical settings and specific populations, such as patients with advanced cancer, has yielded variable results, thus making it necessary to systematize the available evidence.

Recent studies conducted in different regions (Asia, Europe, and Latin America) reinforce their usefulness in various cultures and clinical contexts by improving emotional well-being and generating high levels of satisfaction [9,10]. Likewise, a culturally adapted version of DT for ambulatory oncology patients has shown effectiveness in enhancing the sense of dignity and reducing distress in patients with advanced-stage disease [11]. Among patients in a terminal condition, DT has been useful in reducing emotional symptoms and, although no survival benefit was observed, its relevance has been consolidated as an ethical and humanizing intervention in end-of-life care [12].

The increasing prevalence of patients with advanced cancer and the importance of comprehensively addressing suffering in palliative care justify the need for a systematic review of the effects of dignity therapy [13].

In this context, the aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effectiveness of Dignity Therapy in adult patients with advanced cancer receiving palliative care, and to analyze its impact on perceived dignity, psychological and spiritual well-being, and quality of life, compared with standard care.

2. Methodology

This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [14]. The protocol was prospectively entered in the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) database under registration number CRD420251109555.

2.1 Inclusion criteria

Randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies evaluating Dignity Therapy in adults (≥18 years) with advanced or terminal cancer receiving palliative care were included. The intervention must correspond to the original Chochinov model, administered in person or in a culturally adapted format. The comparison group was standard palliative care. The primary outcome was perceived dignity, and secondary outcomes included anxiety, depression, hope, spiritual well-being, and quality of life.

2.2 Exclusion criteria

Studies involving patients with severe cognitive impairment, combined psychosocial interventions, pilot studies without complete results, review articles, short communications, conference abstracts, and duplicate publications were excluded.

2.3 Search strategy

The literature search was completed on 20 July 2025. It was conducted without language or date restrictions in five databases (PubMed, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science). Search terms included MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) and free-text terms related to dignity therapy, cancer, and palliative care. The main search string was: (“Dignity Therapy” OR “dignity intervention”) AND (“Neoplasms” OR “Cancer”) AND (“Palliative Care”). It was adapted for each database.

2.4 Study selection

A total of 447 records were identified in electronic databases. After removing duplicates (n = 190) and one ineligible record identified by automation tools, 256 titles and abstracts were screened. Out of these, 233 were excluded for not meeting inclusion criteria. Twenty-three full-text articles were assessed; 17 met the eligibility criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis [4,9-12,15-26]; ten provided adequate data for meta-analysis. The entire selection process is detailed in Figure 1. Reference management was performed using Mendeley Reference Manager.

Figure 1.PRISMA

flow diagram of study selection for the systematic review.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf1.png

2.5 Risk of bias assessment

Risk of bias was independently assessed by two reviewers using ROB 2 (Risk of Bias 2) for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) [27] and ROBINS-I (Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions) for non-randomized studies [28]. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus or through a third reviewer (an independent methodological and statistical consultant).

2.6 Data extraction

Information from each study was collected using a structured Excel template to ensure uniformity and accuracy. General data (author, year, country, design, and sample size), participant characteristics, cancer type, and care setting were extracted. Regarding the intervention, the main features of Dignity Therapy (mode of delivery, duration, professional in charge, and cultural adaptations) and the comparison group were recorded. Primary and secondary outcomes (perceived dignity, psychological well-being, spirituality, hope, and quality of life) were documented with the scales used and pre- and post-intervention values. Data were verified by two independent reviewers, and disagreements were resolved through consensus.

2.7 Data analysis

Quantitative analyses were performed using Jamovi (version 2.3.28). For continuous outcomes (Patient Dignity Inventory scores and other scales), mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated. For paired measures (pretest-posttest), mean and standard deviation (SD) of the differences were used or derived from means and SDs at each time point using standard formulas for repeated measures, assuming a correlation coefficient based on the literature. Between-group comparisons (intervention vs. control) used unstandardized mean differences. Random-effects models (DerSimonian and Laird) were applied as the main estimator. Heterogeneity was assessed using I², Cochran’s Q test, and 95% prediction intervals, following the recommendations of Higgins and Thompson [29]. Due to the small number of studies included in the comparative meta-analysis, publication bias could not be reliably assessed.

3. Results

Ten studies published between 2011 and 2024 were included: five randomized controlled trials and five pre-post quasi-experimental studies. Together, they comprised 904 adult patients with advanced or terminal cancer enrolled in palliative care programs in North America (Canada, Mexico), Europe (Denmark, Italy, Switzerland), and Asia (China, Taiwan). Sample sizes ranged from 24 to 326 participants, with a predominance of women (53%) and an overall mean age of 63 years. Follow-up periods were short (7-30 days).

All studies implemented Dignity Therapy based on the original 2005 Chochinov model. In general, the intervention consisted of an individual semi-structured interview conducted by a trained professional (clinical psychologist, palliative care physician, or nurse with specific training), usually in one or two sessions of 30-60 minutes, transcribed into a legacy document. Most interventions were delivered in hospital settings and focused on patients with advanced or terminal cancer, compared with standard palliative care without a structured psychotherapeutic intervention. In some studies, the protocol was linguistically or culturally adapted while preserving the essence of the intervention.

In eight studies, the control group received only standard palliative care, consisting of symptom control, non-structured psychosocial support, and clinical follow-up. In two quasi-experimental studies, the intervention was evaluated using a pretest-posttest design without a control group. No study used another structured psychotherapy as a comparator, with the aim of isolating the specific effect of DT.

3.1 Risk of bias in the included studies

Methodological quality was variable. Among RCTs assessed with ROB 2 (Figure 2a), three showed high risk of bias due to lack of blinding and attrition, while two presented an overall low risk of bias. Quasi-experimental studies, evaluated with ROBINS-I, were classified as having a serious overall risk of bias, mainly due to lack of a control group and non-random selection (Figure 2b).

Figure 2

Risk of bias in the included studies: RCTs assessed with ROB 2 (a) and quasi-experimental studies assessed with ROBINS-I (b).

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf2.png

3.2 Effects on patient dignity

Meta-analysis of the ten included studies showed that Dignity Therapy did not produce statistically significant differences in perceived dignity, either relative to baseline or compared with standard palliative care.

In the pretest-posttest analysis, the mean difference was 0.96 (95% CI: -9.5 to 11.4), whereas in the comparison with control groups the mean difference was -3.91 (95% CI: -12.4 to 4.6) (Figures 3 and 4).

Both analyses showed high heterogeneity (I² > 90%), reflected in the wide dispersion of confidence intervals in the forest plots.

Despite the absence of statistical significance, most studies reported favorable trends in emotional well-being and sense of dignity. Therefore, it suggests a positive clinical impact, although variable according to cultural context, methodological design, and patient characteristics.

Figure 3

Forest plot of the pretest-posttest effect of Dignity Therapy. The large dispersion of confidence intervals reflects considerable heterogeneity.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf3.png

Figure 4

Forest plot of the effect of Dignity Therapy compared with control groups (8 studies). The width of the confidence intervals reflects the observed heterogeneity.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf4.png

3.3 Effects of Dignity Therapy on other outcomes

Beyond its effect on patient dignity, evidence was found for other outcomes such as reductions in anxiety and depression, improvements in spiritual well-being, hope, quality of life, preparat0069on for death, reduction of existential suffering, and fatigue. A synthesis of the evidence for these outcomes is presented below.

3.3.1 Anxiety and depression

Several studies used the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) to measure anxiety and depression. In the trial by Chochinov et al. (2011), no statistically significant differences were found between patients who received DT and those in the control group, although there was a trend toward lower symptomatology in the intervention group [26]. Similar findings were reported by Houmann et al. (2014) and Hall et al. (2011); in these, DT did not yield significant changes compared with control groups but did provide qualitative benefits reported by participants [23,24].

By contrast, studies by Li et al. (2020) and Iani et al. (2020) showed significant reductions in both anxiety and depression following DT [20,25]. More recently, Seiler et al. (2024) and Wang et al. (2024) also confirmed statistically significant improvements in these outcomes, thus suggesting that the impact of DT may depend on cultural factors and the context in which it is implemented [17,18].

3.3.2 Spiritual well-being

The Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy - Spiritual Well-Being (FACIT-Sp) was used in studies by Chochinov et al. (2011) and Houmann et al. (2014). Although no significant differences were found compared with controls, both studies reported that patients perceived a greater sense of purpose and inner peace after DT. This is a relevant qualitative contribution [23,26].

3.3.3 Hope, preparation for death, and existential suffering

The Herth Hope Index (HHI) was evaluated by Hall et al. (2011), who found significant increases in hope levels in the DT group compared with controls [24]. Chochinov et al. (2011) assessed preparation for death and reported that patients who received DT felt better prepared, although quantitative comparisons did not reach statistical significance [26]. Similarly, Houmann et al. (2014) documented improvements in perceived existential control and adaptation to the end-of-life process [23]. Together, these findings reinforce the qualitative dimension of DT as supportive therapy in the transition toward death.

3.3.4 Quality of life

Quality of life was assessed in several studies using different instruments, including the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire - Core 15 Palliative (EORTC-QLQ-C15-PAL). Houmann et al. (2014) and Li et al. (2020) reported improvements in specific domains (emotional well-being and social functioning), although findings were not consistent across all dimensions of the questionnaire [20,23]. Wang et al. (2024) reported significant global improvements when DT was combined with family-focused interventions [17].

3.3.5 Fatigue and physical suffering

Xiao et al. (2024) included measures of fatigue and physical symptoms associated with advanced cancer and observed clinically relevant reductions after the intervention [19]. Although results were not consistent across all domains, these findings suggest that DT may indirectly contribute to the reduction of physical suffering through psychological relief.

4. Discussion

Findings reported in this systematic review indicate that Dignity Therapy is a brief, patient-centered intervention designed to address existential and psychological suffering in the context of advanced disease. Although the review did not demonstrate a statistically significant effect on the primary outcome of perceived dignity, relevant benefits were observed in reducing anxiety and depression and increasing hope and spiritual well-being. These results suggest that DT may have an important clinical impact on emotional and existential domains, even when quantitative findings are heterogeneous.

The high heterogeneity observed (I² > 90%) reflects methodological differences between studies, including diverse designs (RCTs vs. quasi-experimental studies), small sample sizes, and the use of different scales to measure dignity, spirituality, and quality of life. Such limitations are common in reviews of psycho-spiritual interventions, where the subjectivity of outcomes and cultural variation hinder comparability [2,3].

In randomized controlled trials assessed with ROB 2, risk of bias was identified in domains such as blinding and loss to follow-up [18,24,25]. Nonetheless, studies with greater methodological rigor, such as those by Wang et al. [17] and Xiao et al. [19], demonstrated significant reductions in anxiety and depression, underscoring the potential effectiveness of DT when more controlled designs are implemented.

Quasi-experimental studies assessed with ROBINS-I showed a serious risk of bias due to participant selection and lack of control for confounding [10,23]. Even so, they provide valuable information regarding the feasibility and acceptability of DT in real-world clinical practice. Experiences in Mexico and China are particularly illustrative of the relevance of cultural factors in perceived effectiveness, where family and community play a central role in the end-of-life experience.

Another notable aspect is the consistency of qualitative findings reporting significant benefits: a greater sense of being accompanied, reaffirmation of identity, resolution of unfinished business, and creation of a legacy for family members [4,8]. Although difficult to quantify, these dimensions reflect the ethical and humanizing value of DT, aligned with Chochinov’s dignity-conserving care framework [30], which considers identity, autonomy, and continuity of self as pillars of compassionate end-of-life care.

European evidence, particularly the work of Julião et al. [12] in Portugal, shows that DT does not impact survival but does reduce psychological distress and improve emotional well-being. This confirms that the main contribution of DT lies in the existential domain, reinforcing patients’ dignity and autonomy at the end of life.

Finally, it should be emphasized that DT does not replace conventional medical or psychosocial care but rather complements it, enhancing comprehensive management. Integrating DT into palliative care protocols would strengthen holistic care, especially in Latin American contexts where family, spiritual, and cultural values are central to the experience of illness and death [31].

5. Conclusions

Dignity Therapy emerges as a feasible, safe, and well-accepted intervention for patients with advanced cancer, with consistent benefits in emotional and existential domains. Its effects are expressed mainly through reductions in anxiety and depression, increased hope, and strengthened spiritual well-being-components that influence quality of life and coping with end-of-life processes.

Although quantitative results for perceived dignity did not reach statistical significance, qualitative evidence and the consensus of the reviewed studies indicate that DT provides clinical and human value, reaffirming patient identity and contributing to more compassionate, person-centered care.

Methodological heterogeneity, small sample sizes, and identified risks of bias limit the generalizability of findings; however, the convergence of qualitative and quantitative results supports the usefulness of DT as an ethical and humanizing intervention in palliative care. Taken together, DT improves the quality of the dying process by facilitating biographical closure, expression of meaning, and preservation of the patient’s personal legacy.

6. Recommendations

It is recommended to integrate Dignity Therapy as a complementary component of palliative care programs, with protocols adapted to the cultural, spiritual, and family idiosyncrasies of each population. Training health professionals in DT within interdisciplinary teams would help strengthen comprehensive, person-centered care models.

In addition, multicenter studies with greater methodological rigor-particularly randomized controlled trials with larger samples and longitudinal follow-up-are needed to confirm the observed benefits and explore DT’s mechanisms of action across different clinical and cultural contexts.

The use of mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) should be promoted to capture the full range of intervention effects, given that many of DT’s benefits transcend what can be measured quantitatively. Finally, the generation of evidence in Latin America should be encouraged, as DT has shown high acceptability and cultural relevance in this region, where its integration may foster more humane, compassionate, and spiritually sensitive end-of-life care.

Acknowledgment

Not applicable

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S Hall C Goddard D Opio PW Speck P Martin IJ. Higginson A novel approach to enhancing hope in patients with advanced cancer: a randomised phase II trial of dignity therapyBMJ Support Palliat Care0112201113315321https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjspcare-2011-000054

25. Iani L, De Vincenzo F, Maruelli A, Chochinov HM, Ragghianti M, Durante S, et al. Dignity Therapy Helps Terminally Ill Patients Maintain a Sense of Peace: Early Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Front Psychol. 2020;11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01468

L Iani F De Vincenzo A Maruelli HM Chochinov M Ragghianti S Durante Dignity Therapy Helps Terminally Ill Patients Maintain a Sense of Peace: Early Results of a Randomized Controlled TrialFront Psychol202011https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01468

26. Chochinov HM, Kristjanson LJ, Breitbart W, McClement S, Hack TF, Hassard T, et al. Effect of dignity therapy on distress and end-of-life experience in terminally ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. August 2011;12(8):753-62. DOI : https://doi.org/10.1016/s1470-2045(11)70153-x

HM Chochinov LJ Kristjanson W Breitbart S McClement TF Hack T Hassard Effect of dignity therapy on distress and end-of-life experience in terminally ill patients: a randomised controlled trialLancet Oncol082011128753762https://doi.org/10.1016/s1470-2045(11)70153-x

27. Sterne JAC, Savović J, Page MJ, Elbers RG, Blencowe NS, Boutron I, et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ [Internet]. August 28, 2019;366. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4898

JAC Sterne J Savović MJ Page RG Elbers NS Blencowe I Boutron RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trialsBMJ [Internet]28082019366https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4898

28. Sterne JA, Hernán MA, Reeves BC, Savović J, Berkman ND, Viswanathan M, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ [Internet]. October 12, 2016;355. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4919

JA Sterne MA Hernán BC Reeves J Savović ND Berkman M Viswanathan ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventionsBMJ [Internet]12102016355https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4919

29. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med [Internet]. June 15, 2002;21(11):1539-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186

JPT Higgins SG. Thompson Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysisStat Med [Internet]15062002211115391558https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186

30. Chochinov H. Dignity and the essence of medicine: the A, B, C, and D of dignity conserving care. BMJ [Internet]. July 26, 2007;335(7612):184-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39244.650926.47

H. Chochinov Dignity and the essence of medicine: the A, B, C, and D of dignity conserving careBMJ [Internet]260720073357612184187https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39244.650926.47

31. García Torrejon MC, Heras de la Calle G, Martin Delgado MC, Franco Garrobo N, Gordo Vidal F, Varillas Delgado D, et al. Spirituality in Critical Care: An Observational Study of the Perceptions of Professionals, Patients and Families, in Spain and Latin America. J Relig Health [Internet]. August 1st, 2023;62(4):2391-411. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-023-01746-2

MC García Torrejon G Heras de la Calle MC Martin Delgado N Franco Garrobo F Gordo Vidal D Varillas Delgado Spirituality in Critical Care: An Observational Study of the Perceptions of Professionals, Patients and Families, in Spain and Latin AmericaJ Relig Health [Internet]0108202362423912411https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-023-01746-2

How to cite: Fiallos Coque Wagner, Parra Gavilanes Ericka, Vallejo Martinez Mariana. Effectiveness of Dignity Therapy in Patients with Advanced Cancer Receiving Palliative Care: A Systematic Review. Oncología (Ecuador). 2025;35(3): 3-13. https://doi.org/10.33821/826

Abbreviations DT: Dignity Therapy RCT: Randomized controlled trial MD: Mean difference SD: Standard deviation 95% CI: 95% confidence interval PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses PROSPERO: International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews ROB 2: Risk of Bias 2 ROBINS-I: Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale HHI: Herth Hope Index EORTC QLQ-C15-PAL: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire - Core 15 Palliative FACIT-Sp: Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy - Spiritual Well-Being

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Funding This work did not receive specific funding from public agencies, academic institutions, non-profit organizations, or the private sector. The review was conducted within the framework of the master’s program in Palliative Care, as part of the academic and research development of the first author

Availability of materials None.

Disclaimer of liability The opinions, analyses, and interpretations expressed in this article are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the institutions to which they belong.


Efectividad de la terapia de la dignidad en pacientes con cáncer avanzado que reciben cuidados paliativos: una revisión sistemática

0009-0002-2587-8437Fiallos CoqueWagner

MD

10009-0003-6788-7291Parra GavilánezEricka

MD, MSc

20000-0001-5727-262XMartínezMariana Vallejo

MD, MSc

3

Resumen

Introducción:

La terapia de la dignidad es una intervención psicoterapéutica breve desarrollada para aliviar el sufrimiento existencial y fortalecer la identidad y el sentido de valor en pacientes al final de la vida. Su aplicación en cuidados paliativos oncológicos ha mostrado resultados variables, por lo que es necesario evaluar su efectividad global.

Metodología:

Se realizó una revisión sistemática conforme a la declaración PRISMA 2020, registrada en PROSPERO (CRD420251109555). Se incluyeron ensayos clínicos aleatorizados y estudios cuasiexperimentales que aplicaron la terapia en pacientes adultos con cáncer avanzado o terminal. El desenlace principal fue la dignidad percibida, y los secundarios incluyeron ansiedad, depresión, bienestar espiritual, esperanza y calidad de vida. La calidad metodológica se evaluó con las herramientas ROB 2 y ROBINS-I.

Resultados:

Se analizaron diez estudios con 904 pacientes de América, Europa y Asia. No se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la dignidad percibida; sin embargo, la mayoría de los estudios reportó mejoras en bienestar emocional, esperanza y espiritualidad, con buena aceptación y factibilidad de la intervención.

Conclusiones:

Aunque los resultados cuantitativos son heterogéneos, la terapia de la dignidad ofrece beneficios emocionales y existenciales relevantes en pacientes con cáncer avanzado, lo cual constituye una estrategia ética y humanizadora. Se recomienda su integración en los programas de cuidados paliativos y la realización de investigaciones multicéntricas con mayor rigor metodológico.



1. Introducción

La fase terminal en el paciente oncológico representa un proceso complejo, en el que se evidencia sufrimiento físico, afectación emocional con alta probabilidad de pérdida de sentido y crisis existencial relacionada con la proximidad de la finitud. En este contexto, los cuidados paliativos se constituyen como un enfoque integral (físico, psicológico, social y espiritual) destinado a mejorar la calidad de vida del paciente y su entorno [1].

Entre las intervenciones emergentes en este campo, la terapia de la dignidad (TD) ha ganado reconocimiento como una herramienta psicoterapéutica breve, centrada en la persona, diseñada para aliviar el sufrimiento existencial y promover un sentido de valor, continuidad del yo y legado para el paciente al final de la vida [2,3]. Desarrollada por Chochinov et al. en 2005 [4,5], la TD se estructura en torno a una entrevista semiestructurada cuyas respuestas se transcriben y editan para generar un documento que puede ser compartido con quien el paciente lo desee, así que funciona como un “testimonio de vida”.

Numerosos estudios han señalado beneficios de la TD, como la disminución de la ansiedad y la depresión, mejora del bienestar espiritual la percepción del sentido y el control personal ante la proximidad de la muerte [6-8]. Sin embargo, su implementación en distintos entornos clínicos y poblaciones específicas, como pacientes con cáncer avanzado, ha generado variabilidad en los resultados, por lo que es necesario sistematizar la evidencia disponible.

Estudios recientes realizados en distintas regiones (Asia, Europa y América Latina) refuerzan su utilidad en diferentes culturas y contextos clínicos: ha mejorado el bienestar emocional y se han generado altos niveles de satisfacción [9,10]. Asimismo, una versión culturalmente adaptada de la TD para pacientes oncológicos en tratamiento ambulatorio mostró ser eficaz en mejorar el sentido de dignidad y reducir la angustia en pacientes en etapa avanzada [11]; en pacientes en situación de terminalidad, la TD fue útil para para reducir síntomas emocionales, y aunque no se evidenció un aumento en la supervivencia, se consolidó su relevancia como intervención ética y humanizadora en el acompañamiento del final de vida [12].

La creciente prevalencia de pacientes con cáncer en fases avanzadas y la importancia de abordar de forma integral el sufrimiento en cuidados paliativos justifican la necesidad de revisar sistemáticamente los efectos de la terapia de la dignidad [13].

En este contexto, la presente revisión sistemática tuvo como objetivo evaluar la efectividad de la TD en pacientes adultos con cáncer avanzado que reciben cuidados paliativos, analizando su impacto en la dignidad percibida, el bienestar psicológico, espiritual y la calidad de vida en comparación con los cuidados estándar.

2. Metodología

Esta revisión sistemática se llevó a cabo conforme a las directrices de la declaración PRISMA 2020 (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) [14]. El protocolo fue registrado de forma prospectiva en la base de datos PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) bajo el número de registro [CRD420251109555].

2.1 Criterios de inclusión

Se incluyeron ensayos clínicos aleatorizados y estudios cuasiexperimentales que evaluaron la TD en adultos (≥ 18 años) con cáncer avanzado o terminal en cuidados paliativos. La intervención debía corresponder al modelo original de Chochinov, aplicada de forma presencial o culturalmente adaptada. El grupo comparador fue el expuesto a la atención paliativa estándar. El desenlace principal fue la dignidad percibida, y los secundarios incluyeron ansiedad, depresión, esperanza, bienestar espiritual y calidad de vida.

2.2 Criterios de exclusión

Se excluyeron estudios en pacientes con deterioro cognitivo severo, intervenciones psicosociales combinadas, estudios piloto sin resultados completos, artículos de revisión, comunicaciones breves, resúmenes de congresos y duplicados.

2.3 Estrategia de búsqueda

La búsqueda se finalizó el 20 de julio del 2025. Esta se realizó sin restricciones de idioma ni fecha en cinco bases de datos (PubMed, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science). Los términos de búsqueda incluyeron combinaciones con términos MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) relacionados con la terapia de la dignidad, cáncer y cuidados paliativos. La estrategia de búsqueda fue la siguiente: ("Dignity Therapy" OR "dignity intervention") AND ("Neoplasms" OR "Cancer") AND ("Palliative Care"). Esta estrategia fue adaptada a las bases de datos correspondientes.

2.4 Selección de estudios

Se identificaron 447 registros en las bases de datos electrónicas. Tras eliminar duplicados (n = 190) y un registro inelegible por automatización, se cribaron 256 títulos y resúmenes. Se excluyeron 233 por no cumplir con los criterios de inclusión. Se evaluaron 23 estudios a texto completo, de los cuales 17 cumplieron con los criterios de elegibilidad y fueron incluidos en la revisión cualitativa [4,9-12,15-26]; diez de ellos aportaron datos adecuados para el metaanálisis. El proceso completo de selección se detalla en la Figura 1. La gestión de referencias se llevó a cabo utilizando Mendeley Reference Manager.

Figura 1. Diagrama

de flujo (PRISMA) de selección de los estudios incluidos en la revisión.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf5.png

2.5 Evaluación del riesgo de sesgo

El riesgo de sesgo fue evaluado de forma independiente por dos revisores utilizando ROB 2 (Risk of Bias 2) [27] para los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados (ECA) y ROBINS-I (Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions) [28] para los estudios no aleatorizados. Las discrepancias se resolvieron por consenso o mediante un tercer revisor (consultor metodológico y estadístico independiente).

2.6 Extracción de datos

La información de cada estudio se recopiló mediante una plantilla de Excel estructurada que garantizó uniformidad y precisión. Se extrajeron datos generales (autor, año, país, diseño y tamaño muestral), características de los participantes, tipo de cáncer y contexto asistencial. En cuanto a la intervención, se registraron las principales características de la TD (modalidad, duración, profesional responsable y adaptaciones culturales) y del grupo comparador. Los desenlaces principales y secundarios (dignidad percibida, bienestar psicológico, espiritualidad, esperanza y calidad de vida) se documentaron con las escalas empleadas y los valores pre y posintervención. La información fue verificada por dos revisores independientes y las discrepancias se resolvieron por consenso.

2.7 Análisis de los datos

El análisis cuantitativo se realizó utilizando Jamovi (versión 2.3.28). Para los desenlaces continuos (puntuaciones del Patient Dignity Inventory y otras escalas), se calcularon diferencias de medias (DM) con sus intervalos de confianza (IC) del 95 %. En medidas pareadas (pretest-postest) se empleó la media y desviación estándar (DE) de las diferencias, o se calcularon a partir de las medias y DE de cada momento aplicando la fórmula para medidas repetidas, asumiendo un coeficiente de correlación basado en la literatura. Las comparaciones entre grupos (intervención vs. control) utilizaron DM no estandarizada. Se aplicaron modelos de efectos aleatorios (DerSimonian y Laird) como estimador principal. La heterogeneidad se evaluó mediante I², prueba Q de Cochran e intervalo de predicción al 95 % de acuerdo con las recomendaciones de Higgins y Thompson [29]. No fue posible evaluar de manera confiable el sesgo de publicación debido al número reducido de estudios incluidos en el metaanálisis de comparación.

3. Resultados

Se incluyeron diez estudios publicados entre 2011 y 2024, cinco ensayos clínicos aleatorizados y cinco estudios cuasiexperimentales pre-post. En conjunto, abarcaron 904 pacientes adultos con cáncer avanzado o terminal atendidos en programas de cuidados paliativos en América del Norte (Canadá, México), Europa (Dinamarca, Italia, Suiza) y Asia (China, Taiwán). Las muestras variaron entre 24 y 326 participantes, con predominio de mujeres (53 %) y edad media global de 63 años. Los seguimientos fueron breves (7-30 días).

Todos los estudios aplicaron la TD, con base en el modelo de Chochinov de 2005; la intervención consistió, de forma general, en una entrevista semiestructurada individual, guiada por un profesional entrenado (psicólogo clínico, médico especialista en cuidados paliativos o enfermero con formación específica) generalmente en una o dos sesiones individuales de 30-60 minutos, transcritas como documento de legado. La mayoría se desarrolló en el ámbito hospitalario, se centraron en pacientes con cáncer avanzado o terminal, comparando con cuidados paliativos estándar sin intervención psicoterapéutica estructurada. En algunos casos se adaptó lingüística o culturalmente, manteniendo la esencia del protocolo.

En ocho estudios, el grupo control recibió únicamente la atención de cuidados paliativos, consistente en control de síntomas, apoyo psicosocial no estructurado y seguimiento clínico. En dos estudios cuasiexperimentales, la intervención se evaluó con un diseño pretest-postest sin grupo control. Ningún estudio incluyó otra psicoterapia estructurada como comparador, con el objetivo de aislar el efecto específico de la TD.

3.1 Riesgo de sesgo de los estudios incluidos

La calidad metodológica fue variable. En los ECA evaluados mediante ROB 2 (Figura 2a), tres mostraron riesgo alto por ausencia de cegamiento y pérdidas de seguimiento, mientras que dos presentaron bajo riesgo global. En los estudios cuasiexperimentales, evaluados con ROBINS-I fueron clasificados con riesgo global serio principalmente por falta de grupo control y selección no aleatoria (Figura 2.b).

Figura 2

Riesgo de sesgo de los estudios incluidos: ECA evaluados con ROB 2 (a) y estudios cuasiexperimentales con ROBINS-I (b).

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf6.png

3.2 Efectos sobre la dignidad del paciente

El metaanálisis de los diez estudios incluidos mostró que la TD no produjo diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la dignidad percibida respecto al valor basal ni frente a los cuidados paliativos estándar.

En el análisis pretest-postest, la diferencia media fue de 0,96 (IC 95 %: -9,5 a 11,4), mientras que en la comparación con el grupo control fue de -3,91 (IC 95 %: -12,4 a 4,6) (Figuras 3 y 4).

Ambos análisis evidenciaron alta heterogeneidad (I² > 90 %), reflejada en la amplia dispersión de los intervalos de confianza de los forest plots.

Pese a la ausencia de significancia estadística, la mayoría de los estudios reportó tendencias favorables en bienestar emocional y sentido de dignidad, lo que sugiere un impacto clínico positivo, aunque variable según el contexto cultural, diseño metodológico y características de los pacientes.

Figura 3

Forest plot del efecto pretest-postest de la TD. Se observa gran dispersión de los intervalos de confianza y heterogeneidad considerable.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf7.png

Figura 4

Forest plot del efecto de la TD frente al grupo control (ocho estudios). La amplitud de los intervalos de confianza refleja la heterogeneidad observada.

2661-6653-onco-35-03-3-gf8.png

3.3 Efectos de la terapia de la dignidad sobre otros aspectos

Además de evaluar el efecto sobre la dignidad del paciente, se encontró evidencia sobre otros desenlaces como disminución de la ansiedad y depresión, mejora de la percepción del bienestar espiritual, esperanza, calidad de vida, preparación para la muerte, reducción del sufrimiento existencial y fatiga. A continuación, se presenta una síntesis de la evidencia relacionada con estos desenlaces.

3.3.1 Ansiedad y depresión

Varios estudios emplearon la Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) como instrumento para medir ansiedad y depresión. En el ensayo de Chochinov et al. del 2011 [26], no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los pacientes que recibieron TD en comparación con el grupo control, aunque sí se observaron tendencias a menor sintomatología en el grupo de intervención. Resultados similares se reportaron en Houmann et al. (2014) y Hall et al. (2011) [23,24], estudios en los que la TD no mostró cambios significativos en comparación con los grupos control, pero aportó beneficios cualitativos señalados por los participantes. Por otra parte, los estudios de Li et al. (2020) e Iani et al. (2020) [20,25] evidenciaron reducciones significativas tanto en ansiedad como en depresión tras la intervención con la TD. Más recientemente, Seiler et al. (2024) y Wang et al. (2024) [17,18] también confirmaron mejoras estadísticamente significativas en estos desenlaces, y esto sugiere que el impacto de la TD puede depender de factores culturales y del contexto de aplicación.

3.3.2 Bienestar espiritual

El Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy - Spiritual Well-Being (FACIT-Sp) fue utilizado en Houmann et al. (2014) y en Chochinov et al. (2011) [23,26]. Aunque no se alcanzaron diferencias significativas frente al control, ambos estudios señalaron que los pacientes percibieron un mayor sentido de propósito y paz interior tras la TD, lo cual constituye un aporte cualitativo relevante.

3.3.3 Esperanza, preparación para la muerte y sufrimiento existencial

La Herth Hope Index (HHI) fue evaluada en Hall et al. (2011) [24], estos autores observaron incrementos significativos en los niveles de esperanza en el grupo tratado con la TD frente al control. Por otro lado, Chochinov et al. (2011) [26] evaluaron la preparación para la muerte y reportaron que los pacientes que recibieron la TD se sintieron mejor preparados, aunque sin alcanzar significancia estadística en las comparaciones cuantitativas. En línea con ello, Houmann et al. (2014) [23] documentaron mejoras en la percepción de control existencial y en la adaptación al proceso de final de vida. Estos resultados refuerzan la dimensión cualitativa de la TD como apoyo en la transición hacia la muerte.

3.3.4 Calidad de vida

La calidad de vida fue medida en múltiples estudios mediante diferentes instrumentos, incluida la European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire (EORTC-QLQ-C15-PAL). En Li et al. (2020) y Houmann et al. (2014) [20,23], se reportaron mejoras en algunos dominios específicos (bienestar emocional y funcionalidad social), aunque no consistentes en todas las dimensiones del cuestionario. Wang et al. (2024) [17] identificaron mejoras globales significativas cuando la TD se combinó con intervenciones familiares.

3.3.5 Fatiga y sufrimiento físico

El estudio de Xiao et al. (2024) [19] incluyó medidas de fatiga y síntomas físicos asociados al cáncer avanzado; además, se observaron disminuciones clínicamente relevantes tras la intervención. Aunque los resultados no fueron consistentes en todos los dominios, estos sugieren que la TD podría contribuir indirectamente a la reducción de sufrimiento físico a través del alivio psicológico.

4. Discusión

Los hallazgos de esta revisión sistemática muestran que la TD es una intervención breve en comparación con otras terapias psicológicas y centrada en el paciente, diseñada para abordar el sufrimiento existencial y psicológico en el contexto de la enfermedad avanzada. Si bien la revisión sistemática no demostró un efecto estadísticamente significativo en el desenlace primario de dignidad percibida, sí se evidenciaron beneficios relevantes en la reducción de ansiedad y depresión, en el incremento de esperanza y en el bienestar espiritual. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la TD puede tener un impacto clínico importante en dominios emocionales y existenciales, aun cuando los resultados cuantitativos sean heterogéneos.

La alta heterogeneidad encontrada (I² > 90 %) refleja las diferencias metodológicas entre los estudios, incluida diversidad en los diseños (ECA vs. cuasiexperimentales), tamaños muestrales reducidos y uso de escalas distintas para medir dignidad, espiritualidad y calidad de vida. Estas limitaciones son comunes en revisiones sobre intervenciones psicoespirituales, en las que la subjetividad de los resultados y las variaciones culturales afectan la comparabilidad [2,3].

En los ECA evaluados con la herramienta ROB 2, se identificó riesgo de sesgo en dominios como cegamiento y pérdidas de seguimiento [18,24,25]. A pesar de ello, estudios con mayor rigor metodológico, como los de Wang et al. [17] y Xiao et al. [19] demostraron reducciones significativas en ansiedad y depresión, lo que resalta la eficacia potencial de la TD cuando se aplican diseños más controlados.

Los estudios cuasiexperimentales evaluados con ROBINS-I presentaron riesgo serio de sesgo por selección de participantes y falta de control de confusión [10,23]. No obstante, aportan información valiosa en cuanto a la factibilidad y aceptabilidad de la TD en la práctica clínica real. En particular, las experiencias en México y China muestran la relevancia de factores culturales en la efectividad percibida, en la que la familia y la comunidad juegan un papel central en la experiencia de fin de vida.

Otro aspecto para destacar es que los resultados cualitativos son consistentes en reportar beneficios significativos: mayor sensación de acompañamiento, reafirmación de la identidad, cierre de asuntos pendientes y generación de un legado para la familia [4,8]. Estas dimensiones, aunque difíciles de cuantificar, reflejan el valor ético y humanizador de la TD, alineado con el enfoque de atención centrada en la dignidad propuesto por Chochinov [30], que considera la identidad, la autonomía y la continuidad del ser como pilares del cuidado compasivo al final de la vida.

La evidencia europea, particularmente el trabajo de Julião et al. [12] en Portugal, muestra que la TD no impacta en la supervivencia, pero sí en la reducción del distrés psicológico y la mejora del bienestar emocional. Esto confirma que el principal aporte de la TD radica en la esfera existencial, y refuerza la dignidad y la autonomía del paciente al final de la vida.

Finalmente, debe reconocerse que la TD no reemplaza los cuidados médicos o psicosociales convencionales, sino que los complementa, con el fin de potenciar la atención integral. Su integración en protocolos de cuidados paliativos fortalecería el abordaje holístico, especialmente en contextos latinoamericanos donde los valores familiares, espirituales y culturales son determinantes en la vivencia de la enfermedad y la muerte [31].

5. Conclusiones

La TD se configura como una intervención viable, segura y bien aceptada en pacientes con cáncer avanzado, con beneficios consistentes en los dominios emocional y existencial. Sus efectos se manifiestan principalmente en la reducción de ansiedad y depresión, el incremento de la esperanza y el fortalecimiento del bienestar espiritual, componentes que repercuten en la calidad de vida y en el proceso de afrontamiento del final de la vida.

Aunque los resultados cuantitativos sobre la dignidad percibida no fueron estadísticamente significativos, la evidencia cualitativa y el consenso de los estudios revisados muestran que la TD aporta valor clínico y humano, reafirma la identidad del paciente y contribuye a una atención más compasiva y centrada en la persona.

La heterogeneidad metodológica, los tamaños muestrales reducidos y los sesgos identificados limitan la generalización de los resultados; sin embargo, la coherencia entre hallazgos cuantitativos y cualitativos sostiene la utilidad de la TD como intervención ética y humanizadora en cuidados paliativos. En conjunto, la TD mejora la calidad del proceso de morir al facilitar el cierre biográfico, la expresión de sentido y la preservación del legado personal del paciente.

6. Recomendaciones

Se recomienda integrar la TD como parte complementaria de los programas de cuidados paliativos, adaptando sus protocolos a la idiosincrasia cultural, espiritual y familiar de cada población. La formación de profesionales en esta intervención dentro de equipos interdisciplinarios contribuiría a fortalecer el modelo de atención integral y centrado en la persona.

Asimismo, es necesario promover investigaciones multicéntricas y de mayor rigor metodológico -particularmente ensayos clínicos aleatorizados con muestras amplias y seguimiento longitudinal- que permitan confirmar los beneficios observados y explorar los mecanismos de acción de la TD en distintos contextos clínicos y culturales.

Se sugiere incorporar enfoques mixtos (cuantitativos y cualitativos) que capten de manera más completa los efectos de la intervención, dado que muchos de sus beneficios trascienden lo medible. Finalmente, debe fomentarse la producción de evidencia en América Latina, donde la TD ha demostrado gran aceptación y pertinencia cultural, y donde su integración puede favorecer una atención más humana, compasiva y espiritual en la etapa final de la vida.