In recent decades, technological advances in critical care medicine have made it possible to prolong the lives of patients whose prognoses were previously considered incompatible with survival. However, these advances have also raised complex ethical dilemmas, especially concerning medical interventions that, in the context of advanced or terminal illness, may be seen as futile or disproportionate. These practices, known as non-beneficial therapeutic interventions, do not offer significant improvement in the patient's prognosis or quality of life, which creates conflicts with the principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice [1].
In this context, palliative care emerges as an ethical, humanistic, and scientific response. According to the World Health Organization, this approach aims at alleviating suffering and improving the quality of life for patients with incurable or terminal illnesses, as well as for their families [2]. However, in intensive care units (ICUs) in South America, there is a constant tension between using all available technological resources and the need to ensure the principles of therapeutic proportionality and human dignity, which generates ethical dilemmas and challenges in care practices [3,4].
Despite its international recognition as an essential component of healthcare, the integration of palliative care in South American ICUs continues to be limited and uneven. Recent reports from the Pan American Health Organization and various regional studies show that institutional, cultural, and educational factors hinder the adoption of practices that prioritize the integral well-being of patients at the end of life [5-9]. Additionally, healthcare professionals face clinical uncertainty, family pressures, fear of litigation, and a prevailing curative approach, all of which limit the implementation of shared and ethically justified decisions in critical contexts [10-12].
Evidence indicates that training in clinical ethics and the application of strategies such as limitation of therapeutic effort (LTE) are fundamental tools to prevent therapeutic obstinacy in critical care contexts [13,14]. Nevertheless, a better understanding of how these strategies are implemented in everyday practice is still needed, especially in public hospitals and among oncology patients or those with poor vital prognosis, where ethical decisions tend to be more complex and are influenced by structural and cultural limitations.
In light of this issue, the present study is justified by the need to understand and reflect upon non-beneficial therapeutic interventions in palliative patients treated at ICUs in South America. These practices not only undermine the quality of care but also conflict with fundamental principles of bioethics and the recognition of palliative care as a human right [15]. Similarly, the limited incorporation of palliative care in critical care settings in the region reflects a knowledge and action gap that, according to international recommendations, should be addressed through implementation guidelines adapted to the local context [16].
Furthermore, it is essential to promote patient- and family-centered care processes based on care ethics and bioethical reflection that integrate interdisciplinary support and respect for human dignity [17,18]. Training healthcare professionals in palliative care is key to ensuring clinical decisions grounded in evidence and in the patient’s values [19]. In this regard, tools such as limitation of therapeutic effort (LTE) and do-not-resuscitate orders have been identified as ethically necessary resources to address end-of-life dilemmas [20].
This review aims at analyzing recent scientific literature on the approach to palliative care and non-beneficial therapeutic interventions at intensive care units in South America, identifying factors that contribute to the persistence of such interventions in palliative patients, exploring the degree of integration of palliative care into ICUs and its relationship with clinical decision-making, and examining the ethical and clinical competencies of healthcare professionals when facing end-of-life situations in critical care settings.
A literature review with a qualitative approach was conducted.
The literature search was carried out in the PubMed, SciELO, Redalyc, Dialnet, and Google Scholar databases. The search strategy focused on combining the DeCS/MeSH descriptors “palliative care,” “intensive care units,” “appropriateness of therapeutic effort,” “non-beneficial therapeutic interventions,” and “South America,” using the Boolean operators “AND” and “OR.”
Initially, 94 potentially relevant articles were identified. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 30 articles that met the required thematic relevance were selected and are shown in a PRISMA flow diagram.
To ensure the transparency and rigor of the review, the following instruments were applied:
Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative Research (ENTREQ) checklist: compliance with 18 out of 21 items.
PRISMA 2020 checklist: compliance with 26 out of 27 items. No registration was performed in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO).
Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP): the ten criteria for qualitative studies were applied, it must comply with nine of them. The main limitation was the scarce explicit reflexivity of the researchers in some studies.
Studies underwent an individual critical appraisal using the qualitative version of CASP, taking into consideration design, data collection methods, clarity in presenting results, clinical implications, and methodological rigor.
These tools and procedures ensured the reproducibility, transparency, and methodological validity of this study. They also provided a solid foundation for analysis and formulation of clinical and ethical recommendations.
Initially, 94 records were identified in the SciELO, Redalyc, PubMed, Dialnet, and Google Scholar databases. After removing 16 duplicates, 78 titles and abstracts were reviewed. Out of those, 40 were considered potentially relevant for full-text reading. Finally, 30 studies met the inclusion criteria and were incorporated into the qualitative synthesis of the review (Figure 1).
Source: Own elaboration based on the PRISMA 2020 flowchart.
Findings were organized around the three specific objectives defined in the review, as detailed below.
Findings confirm that the persistence of non-beneficial interventions in critically ill patients is linked to multiple structural, cultural, and legal factors. Among the most significant are the absence of institutional protocols, family pressure, and fear of legal repercussions. These lead to the prolongation of life with invasive treatments in situations where recovery is not possible [1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11-14, 21].
Additionally, other studies have highlighted the impact of the digitalization of medicine and the increasing technification of critical care, where dependence on medical devices reinforces the practice of therapeutic obstinacy [22]. Recent research also shows that the biomedical culture in Latin America, which is strongly cure-oriented, makes it difficult to recognize therapeutic futility and limits the development of ethical deliberation spaces [23-25].
The humanization of care, understood as a fundamental axis of clinical practice, is presented as a mechanism that can counteract therapeutic persistence by promoting empathetic communication and respect for patient dignity [26].
The integration of palliative care into ICUs continues to be insufficient and uneven in Latin America. While countries such as Brazil and Chile have developed institutional initiatives that show a positive impact, in other cases, the lack of regulatory frameworks and structured programs is a significant barrier [2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 27, 28, 29].
When compared with other regions, it is evident that even in consolidated health systems, difficulties in integrating palliative programs early within critical care units persist, which results in organizational barriers and cultural resistance [30]. Interprofessional studies demonstrate that factors such as team coordination and ongoing education are key determinants in the quality of end-of-life decisions [31].
Likewise, humanization strategies applied in pediatric ICUs confirm that the incorporation of palliative care not only improves communication with families but also strengthens shared decision-making [32].
Clinical experiences in palliative extubation, in turn, show that this practice-in addition to its technical demands-requires ethical and structural support for its proper implementation [33].
All of this reinforces the need to consolidate regional policies that guarantee equitable and effective access to palliative care in critical care settings.
Significant deficiencies were identified in the ethical, clinical, and communication training of healthcare personnel, which limits their ability to handle end-of-life situations at the ICU. Among the most frequent challenges, there are limited experience with the application of advanced directives, lack of training in the adjustment of therapeutic effort, and fear of moral deliberation [17-20, 23-26, 34, 35].
Moreover, it is necessary to strengthen empathetic communication, assertiveness, and interdisciplinary teamwork skills-areas that have been highlighted as essential to ensure humanized, person-centered care [27, 34, 36]. Recent studies show that deficits in bioethics and palliative care training in undergraduate and postgraduate programs limit professionals’ ability to make decisions based on values and clinical evidence [37, 38].
Systematic reviews confirm that the implementation processes of palliative care in the ICU must include institutional protocols and training programs that strengthen clinical ethics and reduce variability in practice [30, 31, 39].
Literature also notes that clinical experiences in terminal weaning and extubation at ICUs in Europe and North America reinforce the importance of ethical and communication training as key elements in providing support to families [40, 41].
Taken together, the results show that therapeutic obstinacy in South American ICUs stems from both structural and cultural factors, while the limited integration of palliative care and the training gap in ethical-clinical competencies perpetuate this phenomenon.
This analysis reaffirms the need to reform critical care models towards approaches centered on dignity, ethical reflection, and the early integration of palliative care.
Table 1 presents the characteristics of the 30 studies sourced from five international and regional databases.
| Specific objective | Relevant findings | References |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Factors that favor the persistence of non-beneficial interventions in the ICU. | Absence of protocols, fear of legal repercussions, family pressure, and biomedical hegemony make it difficult to recognize therapeutic futility and favor clinical obstinacy. | [1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11-14, 21] |
| 2. Degree of palliative care integration in the ICU and its relationship with decision-making. | Integration of palliative care in the ICU is low and uneven across the region; although there are successful experiences, regulatory gaps and institutional and cultural barriers that limit its consolidation persist. | [2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 27, 28, 29] |
| 3. Ethical and clinical competencies of healthcare professionals at the end of life. | There are evident gaps in bioethics training, clinical communication, and the application of AET, which hinders shared and ethically grounded decision-making at the end of life. | [17-20, 23-26, 34, 35] |
Our findings suggest that the persistence of non-beneficial interventions in South American ICUs is due to a complex interplay of structural, cultural, and educational factors. This scenario not only reflects shortcomings in protocols and clinical guidelines, but also a biomedical approach focused on prolonging life that hinders the recognition of therapeutic futility.
This panorama partially coincides with what has been described in Europe and North America, where ethical tensions have also been documented, but the implementation of standardized protocols, robust regulatory frameworks, and training programs has reduced variability and promoted AET practices [42, 43].
Results confirm that therapeutic obstinacy in South America is sustained by the absence of institutional guidelines, fear of legal consequences, and family pressure. This leads to fragmented decisions that are often far from therapeutic proportionality. From a bioethical perspective, this phenomenon reveals a tension between the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence, in which the continuation of invasive treatments can increase suffering without delivering real benefit [44].
In addition, the predominantly curative medical culture delays the recognition of the terminal nature of illness and limits the implementation of advanced care plans. Studies in long-term care settings have shown that decision planning, including advanced directives and early conversations, reduces family anxiety and enables choices consistent with the patient's values [45].
In this scenario, therapeutic obstinacy is upheld by the absence of institutional protocols, fear of legal repercussions, family pressure, and a biomedical culture centered on curing. This shows that the bioethical debate has not yet translated into clear policies or sufficient clinical training, resulting in fragmented decisions that are often far from therapeutic proportionality and patient dignity.
In Europe, the application of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine's guidelines proposes clear algorithms for assessing futility, withdrawing life support, and ensuring structured communication with family. Those tools could be adapted to South American health systems to reduce clinical variability [40].
Meanwhile, in North America, recommendations of the American College of Critical Care Medicine emphasize shared decision-making and comprehensive family support. Such practices could be replicated in our region through training in clinical communication and psychosocial support [38].
Findings address the first specific objective of this research by confirming that the persistence of non-beneficial interventions is based on the lack of protocols, dominance of the curative culture, and legal fears, which perpetuate therapeutic obstinacy.
Regarding the second objective, there is evidence of low integration of palliative care into ICUs. Isolated experiences in some countries highlight the need for mandatorily incorporated palliative programs from the moment critically ill patients are admitted.
Finally, regarding the third objective, the review shows a training gap in bioethics, communication, and clinical skills for end-of-life management. It confirms that not strengthening these areas will make it difficult to systematically implement therapeutic adjustments [46, 47].
These findings have direct implications for clinical practice: there is an urgent need to implement standardized protocols for limiting therapeutic effort, structured communication plans, and continuous education programs in bioethics and palliative care.
At the public policy level, PAHO and WHO recommend integrating palliative care as an essential part of universal health coverage; therefore, ensuring its availability at all levels of care including ICUs [2, 5]. In the region, these recommendations could be turned into regulations requiring the interdisciplinary and documented assessment of therapeutic proportionality, protecting both patients and healthcare teams.
The review shows uneven scientific production in South America that limits the generalization of findings. Multicenter studies are needed to assess the impact of early palliative care integration programs on clinical indicators, family satisfaction, and staff well-being.
It is also recommended to investigate educational models to strengthen ethical and communication skills in undergraduate and graduate programs in Medicine and Nursing. Experiences such as reviews on palliative extubation in pediatric settings demonstrate the importance of protocols that include emotional support for families and healthcare teams [48, 49].
One of the strengths of this work is the inclusion of recent and diverse literature, which allowed for a contextualized and up-to-date analysis of the phenomenon in South America. Additionally, the use of rigorous evaluation tools (PRISMA, ENTREQ, CASP) [50] contributed to methodological robustness. However, the uneven availability of publications in some countries may have introduced a geographic bias and limited the generalizability of the findings.
Likewise, the methodological heterogeneity of the included studies poses a challenge for the direct comparison of results.
The early and systematic integration of palliative care in the ICU-along with AET protocols and ethical training for teams-is essential to reduce therapeutic obstinacy and ensure patient-centered care focused on dignity and family involvement. South America has the opportunity to adapt successful international models and turn them into public policies that transform critical care into a more ethical, humane, and sustainable practice.
The persistence of non-beneficial therapeutic interventions in palliative patients assisted in South American ICUs reflects structural, educational, and cultural limitations that hinder care centered on patient dignity. The integration of palliative care in critical contexts is not only possible but necessary to guarantee more ethical, humane, and sustainable medicine.
End-of-life decision-making must be based on bioethical principles, interdisciplinary dialogue, and respect for patient values. In the long term, strengthening public policies, institutional protocols, and professional training will be key to reducing therapeutic relentlessness and improving the quality of care at ICUs in the region.
1. Beauchamp T, Childress J. Principles of Biomedical Ethics: Marking Its Fortieth Anniversary. Am J Bioeth [Internet]. 2019;19(11):9-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2019.1665402
T Beauchamp J. Childress Principles of Biomedical Ethics: Marking Its Fortieth AnniversaryJ Bioeth [Internet]20191911912https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2019.1665402
2. World Health Organization. Palliative care. 2020. Available at: https://www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/palliative-care
World Health Organization Palliative care2020https://www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/palliative-care
3. Ordóñez-Villota JN, Serrato-Perilla CA, Gutiérrrez-Ruano GA, Rengifo-Arias DM. Ethical dilemmas in nursing regarding limitation of therapeutic effort in critically ill patients. Rev Colomb Bioética. 2021;16(2):e3405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18270/rcb.v16i2.3405
JN Ordóñez-Villota CA Serrato-Perilla GA Gutiérrrez-Ruano DM. Rengifo-Arias Ethical dilemmas in nursing regarding limitation of therapeutic effort in critically ill patientsRev Colomb Bioética2021162e3405https://doi.org/10.18270/rcb.v16i2.3405
4. Bonilla P. Palliative care in Latin America. Rev Nutr Clin Metab. 2021;4(2):4-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35454/rncm.v4n2.226
P. Bonilla Palliative care in Latin AmericaRev Nutr Clin Metab202142413https://doi.org/10.35454/rncm.v4n2.226
5. Pan American Health Organization. Situation of palliative care in the Americas. PAHO; 2022. https://www.paho.org/es/temas/cuidados-paliativos
Pan American Health Organization Situation of palliative care in the AmericasPAHO2022https://www.paho.org/es/temas/cuidados-paliativos
6. Agamez-Insignares, Claudia Patricia., Sánchez-Pedraza, Ricardo., León, Marta Ximena., Seija-Butnaru, Daniela. Decision-making for the adjustment of therapeutic effort at the end of life in oncology patients at the National Cancer Institute of Colombia. pers.bioét. 2023 June; 27(1): e2713. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5294/pebi.2023.27.1.3
Claudia Patricia. Agamez-Insignares Ricardo. Sánchez-Pedraza Marta Ximena. León Daniela. Seija-Butnaru Decision-making for the adjustment of therapeutic effort at the end of life in oncology patients at the National Cancer Institute of Colombiapers.bioét062023271e2713https://doi.org/10.5294/pebi.2023.27.1.3
7. Castillo Vukovic C. Bioethical tools in decision-making in the critical care unit. Rev Med Chile. January 10, 2025;152(11). Available at: https://www.revistamedicadechile.cl/index.php/rmedica/article/view/10736
C. Castillo Vukovic Bioethical tools in decision-making in the critical care unitRev Med Chile1001202515211https://www.revistamedicadechile.cl/index.php/rmedica/article/view/10736
8. Paccha Tamay, Carmen Liliana., Saraguro Salinas, Sara Margarita., Reyes Rueda, Elida Yesica., Campoverde Ponce, Máxima del Roció. Barriers to access to palliative care: Perspectives of patients and families. MasVita [Internet]. 2025 Mar; 7(1): 8-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47606/acven/mv0255
Carmen Liliana Paccha Tamay Sara Margarita Saraguro Salinas Elida Yesica Reyes Rueda Máxima del Roció Campoverde Ponce Barriers to access to palliative care: Perspectives of patients and familiesMasVita [Internet]03202571825https://doi.org/10.47606/acven/mv0255
9. Pereira, Lariane & Andrade, Sonia & Theobald, Melina. (2022). Palliative care: Challenges for education in health. Revista Bioética. 30. 149-161. https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-80422022301515es. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-80422022301515ES
Lariane Pereira Sonia Andrade Melina Theobald 2022Palliative care: Challenges for education in healthRevista Bioética30149161https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-80422022301515eshttps://doi.org/10.1590/1983-80422022301515ES
10. Santacruz, J.G. 2022. The importance of relieving suffering: about palliative sedation. Revista Colombiana de Cancerología. 26, 1 (Mar. 2022), 1-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35509/01239015.871
J.G. Santacruz The importance of relieving suffering: about palliative sedationRevista Colombiana de Cancerología26103202212https://doi.org/10.35509/01239015.871
11. Sierra LA, Medina JT. Bioethics and decision-making at the end of life in the neonatal ICU. Pers Bioet. 2023;27(1):e2719. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5294/pebi.2023.27.1.9
LA Sierra JT. Medina Bioethics and decision-making at the end of life in the neonatal ICUPers Bioet2023271e2719https://doi.org/10.5294/pebi.2023.27.1.9
12. Montenegro Chamorro CD, Maldonado Cando FM. Adjustment of therapeutic effort aimed at a good death. MetroCiencia. December 28, 2021;29(4):9-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47464/MetroCiencia/vol29/4/2021/9-15
CD Montenegro Chamorro FM. Maldonado Cando Adjustment of therapeutic effort aimed at a good deathMetroCiencia28122021294915https://doi.org/10.47464/MetroCiencia/vol29/4/2021/9-15
13. Pérez-Herrera Alicia, García-Hernández Alfonso Miguel. Adjustment of therapeutic effort in critical care units. A narrative literature review. Ene. [Internet]. 2021; 15(2): 1173. Available at: http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1988-348X2021000200009&lng=es. Epub 31-Jan-2022.
Alicia Pérez-Herrera Alfonso Miguel García-Hernández Adjustment of therapeutic effort in critical care unitsA narrative literature review202115211731173http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1988-348X2021000200009&lng=es
14. Gómez-Pérez, Cindia., Sanchez-Garcia, Ana Belen., García-Capilla, Diego José. Bioethical perspective on the adjustment of therapeutic effort in terminal adult patients. Systematic review. Enferm. glob. 2023; 22(71):586-619. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.6018/eglobal.554661
Cindia. Gómez-Pérez Ana Belen. Sanchez-Garcia Diego José. García-Capilla Bioethical perspective on the adjustment of therapeutic effort in terminal adult patientsSystematic review. Enferm. glob20232271586619https://dx.doi.org/10.6018/eglobal.554661
15. Herrera-Fragoso AA. Palliative care as a human right. Med Int Méx 2024; 40 (9): 606-613. Available at: https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/medintmex/mim-2024/mim249g.pdf
AA. Herrera-Fragoso Palliative care as a human rightMed Int Méx2024409606613https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/medintmex/mim-2024/mim249g.pdf
16. Pan American Health Organization. Implementation guide for palliative care in health services. Washington, D.C.: PAHO; 2023. DOI https://doi.org/10.37774/9789275322871
Pan American Health Organization Implementation guide for palliative care in health servicesWashington, D.C.PAHO2023https://doi.org/10.37774/9789275322871
17. Muñoz Merino JM, Becerra Castro S. Palliative care: an anthropological and bioethical reflection. Med Etica. 2024;35(1):207-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.36105/mye.2024v35n1.05
JM Muñoz Merino S. Becerra Castro Palliative care: an anthropological and bioethical reflectionMed Etica2024351207230https://doi.org/10.36105/mye.2024v35n1.05
18. Vera Carrasco O. Ethical aspects in medical care at the end of life. Rev Med La Paz. 2024; 30(3): 50-55. Available at: http://www.scielo.org.bo/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1726-89582024000300050&lng=es. Epub 30-Dec-2024.
O. Vera Carrasco Ethical aspects in medical care at the end of lifeRev Med La Paz20243035055http://www.scielo.org.bo/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1726-89582024000300050&lng=es
19. Fonseca Esparza CP. Impact of training and education in palliative care for health professionals. Green World J. 2024;7(1):112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53313/gwj71112
CP. Fonseca Esparza Impact of training and education in palliative care for health professionalsGreen World J202471112112https://doi.org/10.53313/gwj71112
20. Tuarez JLR, Lombeida MXP, Barrera MJ, Sánchez PJH, Guanga APM. Limitation of therapeutic effort in intensive care patients: healthcare professionals’ perceptions. Horizonte Enferm. 2024 Aug. 30;35(2):638-659. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7764/Horiz_Enferm.35.2.638-659
JLR Tuarez MXP Lombeida MJ Barrera PJH Sánchez APM. Guanga Limitation of therapeutic effort in intensive care patients: healthcare professionals’ perceptionsHorizonte Enferm30082024352638659https://doi.org/10.7764/Horiz_Enferm.35.2.638-659
21. López-Ávila A, Rivas-Riveros E, Campillay-Campillay M. Do not resuscitate orders and limitation of therapeutic effort: ethical challenges for healthcare teams in Chile. Salud Colect. 2024; 20: e4821. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18294/sc.2024.4821
A López-Ávila E Rivas-Riveros M Campillay-Campillay Do not resuscitate orders and limitation of therapeutic effort: ethical challenges for healthcare teams in ChileSalud Colect202420e4821https://doi.org/10.18294/sc.2024.4821
22. Hanna Ruz V. Therapeutic obstinacy and its ethical boundary: when to stop? Rev Chil Anest. 2021;50(1):[pages]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25237/revchilanestv50n01-15
V. Hanna Ruz Therapeutic obstinacy and its ethical boundary: when to stop?Rev Chil Anest2021501https://doi.org/10.25237/revchilanestv50n01-15
23. Alberto Paulo Neto. Clinical bioethics, deliberation, and the digitalization of medicine. Rev. Bioét.. 2024. Vol. 32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420243394pt
Alberto Paulo Neto. Clinical bioethics, deliberation, and the digitalization of medicineRev. Bioét202432https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420243394pt
24. Castillo, Claudio., Ramírez, Manuel., Grenett, Cristian., Rossel, Víctor. Bioethics tools in decision making in the critical care unit. Rev. méd. Chile. 2024 Nov;152(11):1154-1161. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0034-98872024001101154
Claudio. Castillo Manuel. Ramírez Cristian. Grenett Víctor Rossel Bioethics tools in decision making in the critical care unitRev. méd. Chile1120241521111541161http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0034-98872024001101154
25. Dias Ledesma S, Tuapanta Sisa E, Delgado Guzmán K, Chariguaman Aucatoma N. Aspects of bioethics in nursing care of critically ill patients. Polo Conoc. 2025;10(1):2758-79. Available at: https://polodelconocimiento.com/ojs/index.php/es/article/view/8844 https://doi.org/10.23857/pc.v10i1.8844
S Dias Ledesma E Tuapanta Sisa K Delgado Guzmán N. Chariguaman Aucatoma Aspects of bioethics in nursing care of critically ill patientsPolo Conoc202510127582779https://polodelconocimiento.com/ojs/index.php/es/article/view/8844https://doi.org/10.23857/pc.v10i1.8844
26. Guachi Caiza G, Jimenez Barrera M, Monar Zambrano M, López Ramos A. Humanization in critical care: beyond technology. BIOSANA. March 16, 2025;5(2):288-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.62305/biosana.v5i2.544
G Guachi Caiza M Jimenez Barrera M Monar Zambrano A. López Ramos Humanization in critical care: beyond technologyBIOSANA1603202552288299https://doi.org/10.62305/biosana.v5i2.544
27. Filho E, Olivero A, Gurgel S, Gil N, Sanches R, Sanches MA, Souza W. Palliative care in intensive care: integrative review. Rev Bioet. 2023;31:[pages]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420233418es
E Filho A Olivero S Gurgel N Gil R Sanches MA Sanches W. Souza Palliative care in intensive care: integrative reviewRev Bioet202331https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420233418es
28. Furtado M, Moreira de Oliveira I, Pessoa V, Monteiro A. Multiprofessional actions in palliative care in intensive care units: an integrative review. Res Soc Dev. 2021;10:e393101522852. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i15.22852
M Furtado I Moreira de Oliveira V Pessoa A. Monteiro Multiprofessional actions in palliative care in intensive care units: an integrative reviewRes Soc Dev202110e393101522852https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i15.22852
29. Guerra C, Lucena J, Andrade M, Alves S, Garcia C. Healthcare professionals’ perceptions of palliative care. Rev Bioet. 2024;32:[pages]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420243789es
C Guerra J Lucena M Andrade S Alves C. Garcia Healthcare professionals’ perceptions of palliative careRev Bioet202432https://doi.org/10.1590/1983-803420243789es
30. Meddick-Dyson SA, Boland JW, Pearson M, Greenley S, Gambe R, Budding JR, et al. Implementing palliative care in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and mapping of knowledge to the implementation research logic model. Intensive Care Med. 2024;50(11):1778-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-024-07623-0
SA Meddick-Dyson JW Boland M Pearson S Greenley R Gambe JR Budding Implementing palliative care in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and mapping of knowledge to the implementation research logic modelIntensive Care Med2024501117781790https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-024-07623-0
31. Hernández-Zambrano SM, Carrillo-Algarra AJ, Manotas-Solano OE, Ibáñez-Gamboa SE, Mejia-Mendez LM, Martínez-Montoya OH, et al. Interprofessional interventions and factors that improve end-of-life care in intensive care units: an integrative review. Enferm Intensiva. 2024;35(4):352-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfi.2023.08.003
SM Hernández-Zambrano AJ Carrillo-Algarra OE Manotas-Solano SE Ibáñez-Gamboa LM Mejia-Mendez OH Martínez-Montoya Interprofessional interventions and factors that improve end-of-life care in intensive care units: an integrative reviewEnferm Intensiva2024354352367https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfi.2023.08.003
32. Salgado-Reguero ME, Furtado-Eraso S, Bujanda-Sainz de Murieta A, García-Vivar C, Soto-Ruiz N, Escalada-Hernández P. Humanization strategies in pediatric intensive care: a scoping review. Enferm Intensiva. 2025;36(2):500531. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfi.2025.500531
ME Salgado-Reguero S Furtado-Eraso A Bujanda-Sainz de Murieta C García-Vivar N Soto-Ruiz P. Escalada-Hernández Humanization strategies in pediatric intensive care: a scoping reviewEnferm Intensiva2025362500531500531https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfi.2025.500531
33. Affonseca CA, Carvalho LFA, Quinet RPB, Guimarães MC, Cury VF, Rotta AT. Palliative extubation: five-year experience in a pediatric hospital. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2020;96(5):652-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2019.07.005
CA Affonseca LFA Carvalho RPB Quinet MC Guimarães VF Cury AT. Rotta Palliative extubation: five-year experience in a pediatric hospitalJ Pediatr (Rio J)2020965652659https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2019.07.005
34. Orr S, Efstathiou N, Baernholdt M, Vanderspank-Wright B. ICU clinicians' experiences of terminal weaning and extubation. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2022;63(5):e521-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2022.01.016
S Orr N Efstathiou M Baernholdt B. Vanderspank-Wright ICU clinicians' experiences of terminal weaning and extubationJ Pain Symptom Manage2022635e521e528https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2022.01.016
35. Maza-de la Torre Guadalupe, Motta-Ramírez Gaspar-Alberto, Motta-Ramírez Gabriela, Jarquin-Hernández Pamela Monserrat. Empathy, effective communication, and assertiveness in current medical practice. Rev. sanid. mil. [online journal]. 2023;77(1):e01. DOI: https://doi.org/10.56443/rsm.v77i1.371
Guadalupe Maza-de la Torre Gaspar-Alberto Motta-Ramírez Gabriela Motta-Ramírez Pamela Monserrat Jarquin-Hernández Empathy, effective communication, and assertiveness in current medical practiceRev. sanid. mil2023771e01https://doi.org/10.56443/rsm.v77i1.371
36. Font C, Martínez de la Cruz P, Herreros B. Training in clinical ethics, a necessary tool for the professional excellence of the internist. Rev Clin Esp. 2025;225(4):244-249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rce.2024.11.004
C Font P Martínez de la Cruz B. Herreros Training in clinical ethics, a necessary tool for the professional excellence of the internistRev Clin Esp20252254244249https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rce.2024.11.004
37. Dopico P, Cervera C, Ramallal P, Balayo A, Gil P, Fernández-Arce L, et al. Perceived difficulties in primary care in addressing palliative care. Med Fam SEMERGEN [Internet]. 2025 [cited Dec 26, 2025];51(6):102457. DOI: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semerg.2025.102457
P Dopico C Cervera P Ramallal A Balayo P Gil L Fernández-Arce Perceived difficulties in primary care in addressing palliative careMed Fam SEMERGEN [Internet]2025Dec 26, 2025516102457102457 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semerg.2025.102457
38. Gómez-Ledesma EJ, Zúñiga-Domínguez KD, Suaste-Pazmiño DI. Ethical and social implications of palliative care. RUGC. March 1, 2025;3(S1):152-9. Available at: https://universidadugc.edu.mx/ojs/index.php/rugc/article/view/112
EJ Gómez-Ledesma KD Zúñiga-Domínguez DI. Suaste-Pazmiño Ethical and social implications of palliative careRUGC010320253S1152159https://universidadugc.edu.mx/ojs/index.php/rugc/article/view/112
39. Lendínez-Cano G, Roldán Cumbreras C, Congregado Ruíz CB, Medina López RA. Analysis of end-of-life care and palliative care in patients with metastatic renal cancer. Actas Urol Esp. 2025;49(9):501841. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acuro.2025.501841
G Lendínez-Cano C Roldán Cumbreras CB Congregado Ruíz RA. Medina López Analysis of end-of-life care and palliative care in patients with metastatic renal cancerActas Urol Esp2025499501841501841https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acuro.2025.501841
40. Nitola-Mendoza L, Sánchez-Cárdenas M, Rodriguez-Chitiva N, Mora Gutiérrez JM, Rodriguez-Pena R, Romero-González G, et al. Nomenclature in palliative and supportive renal care: not only at the end of life. Nefrología. 2024;44(4):475-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nefro.2023.05.006
L Nitola-Mendoza M Sánchez-Cárdenas N Rodriguez-Chitiva JM Mora Gutiérrez R Rodriguez-Pena G Romero-González Nomenclature in palliative and supportive renal care: not only at the end of lifeNefrología2024444475485https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nefro.2023.05.006
41. Orr S, Efstathiou N, Baernholdt M, Vanderspank-Wright B. ICU clinicians’ experiences of terminal weaning and extubation. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2022; 63(5): e521-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2022.01.016
S Orr N Efstathiou M Baernholdt B. Vanderspank-Wright ICU clinicians’ experiences of terminal weaning and extubationJ Pain Symptom Manage2022635e521e528https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2022.01.016
42. Escudero-Acha P, Leizaola O, Lázaro N, Cordero M, Cossío AM, Ballesteros D, Recena P, Tizón AI, Palomo M, del Campo MM, Freita S, Duerto J, Bilbao NM, Vidal B, González-Romero D, Diaz-Dominguez F, Revuelto J, Blasco ML, Domezain M, Pavía-Pesquera MC, Rubio O, Estella A, Pobo A, Gomez-Acebo I, González-Castro A. ADENI-ICU Study: Analysis of non-admission decisions to the ICU as a measure to limit life support treatments. Med Intensiva. 2022;46(4):192-200. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medin.2020.11.003
P Escudero-Acha O Leizaola N Lázaro M Cordero AM Cossío D Ballesteros P Recena AI Tizón M Palomo MM del Campo S Freita J Duerto NM Bilbao B Vidal D González-Romero F Diaz-Dominguez J Revuelto ML Blasco M Domezain MC Pavía-Pesquera O Rubio A Estella A Pobo I Gomez-Acebo A. González-Castro ADENI-ICU Study: Analysis of non-admission decisions to the ICU as a measure to limit life support treatmentsMed Intensiva2022464192200https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medin.2020.11.003
43. Kesecioglu J, Rusinova K, Alampi D, Arabi YM, Benbenishty J, Benoit D, et al. European Society of Intensive Care Medicine guidelines on end of life and palliative care in the intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. 2024;50(11):1740-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-024-07579-1
J Kesecioglu K Rusinova D Alampi YM Arabi J Benbenishty D Benoit European Society of Intensive Care Medicine guidelines on end of life and palliative care in the intensive care unitIntensive Care Med2024501117401766https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-024-07579-1
44. Truog RD, Campbell ML, Curtis JR, Haas CE, Luce JM, Rubenfeld GD, et al. Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: a consensus statement by the American College [corrected] of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(3):953-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0B013E3181659096
RD Truog ML Campbell JR Curtis CE Haas JM Luce GD Rubenfeld Recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit: a consensus statement by the American College [corrected] of Critical Care MedicineCrit Care Med2008363953963https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0B013E3181659096
45. Choi HR, Chu HN, Jia S, Liu X, Wang T, Lin CC. Family perspectives on and experiences with advance care planning in nursing homes: A thematic synthesis. J Adv Nurs. 2024;81(3):1116-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.16383
HR Choi HN Chu S Jia X Liu T Wang CC. Lin Family perspectives on and experiences with advance care planning in nursing homes: A thematic synthesisJ Adv Nurs202481311161129https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.16383
46. Junges Frantz P. Philosophy of Medicine according to Edmund Pellegrino. Rev Latinoam Bioet. 2025;25(1):119-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/rlbi.7331
P. Junges Frantz Philosophy of Medicine according to Edmund PellegrinoRev Latinoam Bioet2025251119128https://doi.org/10.18359/rlbi.7331
47. Camargo Rubio RD. Bioethics in cardiovascular surgery. Applied ethical theories. Acta Colomb Cuid Intensivo. 2023;23(2):118-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acci.2022.12.003
RD Camargo Rubio Bioethics in cardiovascular surgery. Applied ethical theoriesActa Colomb Cuid Intensivo2023232118125https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acci.2022.12.003
48. Neto J, Casimiro HJ, Reis-Pina P. Palliative extubation in pediatric patients in the intensive care unit and at home: a scoping review. Int J Pediatr. 2023;2023:6697347. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6697347
J Neto HJ Casimiro P. Reis-Pina Palliative extubation in pediatric patients in the intensive care unit and at home: a scoping reviewInt J Pediatr2023202366973476697347https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6697347
49. Elverson J, Evans H, Dewhurst F. Palliation, end of life care and ventilation withdrawal in neuromuscular disorders. Chronic Respir Dis. 2023;20:1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14799731231175911
J Elverson H Evans F. Dewhurst Palliation, end of life care and ventilation withdrawal in neuromuscular disordersChronic Respir Dis20232019https://doi.org/10.1177/14799731231175911
50. Haddaway NR, Page MJ, Pritchard CC, McGuinness LA. PRISMA2020: An R package and a Shiny application to produce PRISMA 2020-compliant flow diagrams, with interactivity for optimized digital transparency and open synthesis. Campbell Syst Rev. 2022;18:e1230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1230
NR Haddaway MJ Page CC Pritchard LA. McGuinness PRISMA2020: An R package and a Shiny application to produce PRISMA 2020-compliant flow diagrams, with interactivity for optimized digital transparency and open synthesisCampbell Syst Rev202218e1230https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1230
How to cite: Durán Cañarte L, Parra Gavilanes E. Non-beneficial interventions in palliative patients treated at intensive care units in South America: a systematic review. Oncología (Ecuador). 2025;35(3): 14-25. https://doi.org/10.33821/815
6. Abbreviations AET: Adjustment of Therapeutic Effort CASP: Critical Appraisal Skills Programme CP: Palliative Care DeCS: Health Sciences Descriptors ENTREQ: Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative Research MeSH: Medical Subject Headings OMS: World Health Organization OPS: Pan American Health Organization PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses PROSPERO: International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews UCI: Intensive Care Unit
7.3 Funding This study did not receive specific funding from public agencies, commercial, or not-for-profit organizations.
8.2 Disclaimer The authors assume sole responsibility for the content and opinions expressed in this article, which do not necessarily reflect the institutional position of their affiliated entities. The information provided is based on peer-reviewed scientific sources and rigorous methodological criteria.
En las últimas décadas, los avances tecnológicos en medicina crítica han posibilitado prolongar la vida de pacientes con pronósticos que previamente eran considerados incompatibles con la supervivencia. Sin embargo, estos avances también han planteado dilemas éticos complejos, especialmente en relación con el uso de intervenciones médicas que, en contextos de enfermedad avanzada o terminal, pueden ser consideradas fútiles o desproporcionadas. Estas prácticas, conocidas como intervenciones terapéuticas no beneficiosas, no ofrecen una mejora significativa en el pronóstico ni en la calidad de vida del paciente, lo que plantea conflictos con los principios de autonomía, beneficencia, no maleficencia y justicia [1].
En este contexto, los cuidados paliativos emergen como una respuesta ética, humanista y científica. De acuerdo con la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), este enfoque se orienta a aliviar el sufrimiento y mejorar la calidad de vida de los pacientes con enfermedades incurables o en fase terminal, así como las de sus familias [2]. Pese a esto, en las unidades de cuidados intensivos (UCI) de Sudamérica persiste una tensión constante entre el uso de todos los recursos tecnológicos disponibles y la necesidad de garantizar los principios de proporcionalidad terapéutica y dignidad humana, lo que genera dilemas éticos y desafíos en la práctica asistencial [3, 4].
A pesar de su reconocimiento internacional como un componente esencial de la atención sanitaria, la integración de los cuidados paliativos en las UCI de la región continúa siendo escasa y desigual. Informes recientes de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) y diversos estudios regionales muestran que factores institucionales, culturales y formativos dificultan la adopción de prácticas que prioricen el bienestar integral del paciente en el final de la vida [5-9]. Además, los profesionales de la salud enfrentan incertidumbre clínica, presiones familiares, temor a litigios y un enfoque curativo hegemónico, lo que limita la implementación de decisiones compartidas y éticamente justificadas en contextos críticos [10-12].
La evidencia señala que la formación en ética clínica y la aplicación de estrategias como la adecuación del esfuerzo terapéutico (AET) se constituyen como herramientas fundamentales para prevenir el encarnizamiento terapéutico en contextos de cuidados críticos [13, 14]. No obstante, aún se requiere mayor comprensión acerca de cómo estas estrategias se implementan en la práctica cotidiana, especialmente en hospitales públicos y en pacientes oncológicos o con mal pronóstico vital, casos en los que las decisiones éticas suelen ser más complejas y se ven condicionadas por limitaciones estructurales y culturales.
Ante esta problemática, el presente estudio se justifica por la necesidad de comprender y reflexionar sobre las intervenciones terapéuticas no beneficiosas en pacientes paliativos atendidos en UCI de Sudamérica. Estas prácticas no solo comprometen la calidad asistencial, sino que entran en conflicto con principios fundamentales de la bioética y con el reconocimiento de los cuidados paliativos como un derecho humano [15].
Igualmente, la incorporación limitada de este tipo de cuidados en los entornos críticos de la región refleja una brecha de conocimiento y acción que, según las recomendaciones internacionales, debe ser atendida mediante guías de implementación adaptadas al contexto local [16].
Sumado a lo anterior, resulta indispensable promover procesos de atención centrados en el paciente y su familia, sustentados en la ética del cuidado y la reflexión bioética que integren el acompañamiento interdisciplinario y el respeto a la dignidad humana [17, 18]. Para esto, la formación de los profesionales de la salud resulta clave para garantizar decisiones clínicas fundamentadas en la evidencia y en los valores del paciente [19]. En este sentido, herramientas como la AET y las órdenes de no reanimar han sido señaladas como recursos éticamente necesarios para enfrentar los dilemas al final de la vida [20].
El objetivo de esta revisión es analizar la literatura científica reciente sobre el abordaje de los cuidados paliativos y las intervenciones terapéuticas no beneficiosas en unidades de cuidados intensivos de Sudamérica, identificando los factores que favorecen la persistencia de dichas intervenciones en pacientes paliativos, explorando el grado de integración de los cuidados paliativos en las UCI y su relación con la toma de decisiones clínicas, y examinando las competencias éticas y clínicas de los profesionales de salud frente al final de la vida en entornos críticos.
La búsqueda bibliográfica se realizó en las bases de datos PubMed, SciELO, Redalyc, Dialnet y Google Scholar.
La estrategia de búsqueda se centró en combinar los descriptores DeCS/MeSH “cuidados paliativos”, “unidades de cuidados intensivos”, “adecuación del esfuerzo terapéutico”, “intervenciones terapéuticas no beneficiosas” y “Sudamérica”, con los operadores booleanos AND y OR.
Inicialmente, se identificaron 94 artículos potencialmente relevantes. Tras aplicar los criterios de inclusión y exclusión se seleccionaron 30 que cumplían con la pertinencia temática requerida y que se muestra en un diagrama de flujo PRISMA.
Para asegurar la transparencia y el rigor de la revisión, se aplicaron los siguientes instrumentos:
Checklist Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative Research (ENTREQ): cumplimiento de 18 de los 21 ítems.
Checklist PRISMA 2020: cumplimiento de 26 de los 27 ítems. No se realizó registro en el International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO).
Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP): aplicación de los diez criterios para estudios cualitativos, con cumplimiento de nueve de ellos. Se identificó como principal limitación la escasa reflexividad explícita de los investigadores en algunos estudios.
Los estudios incluidos fueron sometidos a una evaluación crítica individual mediante la versión cualitativa del CASP, considerando diseño, método de recolección de datos, claridad en la presentación de resultados, implicaciones clínicas y rigor metodológico.
Estas herramientas y procedimientos aseguraron la reproducibilidad, transparencia y validez metodológica del presente estudio, aportando una base sólida para el análisis y la formulación de recomendaciones clínicas y éticas.
Inicialmente, se identificaron 94 registros en las bases de datos SciELO, Redalyc, PubMed, Dialnet y Google Scholar. Tras la eliminación de 16 duplicados, se revisaron 78 títulos y resúmenes, de los cuales 40 fueron considerados potencialmente relevantes para lectura a texto completo. Finalmente, 30 estudios cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión y fueron incorporados en la síntesis cualitativa de la revisión (Figura 1).
Fuente: elaboración propia con base en el flujograma PRISMA 2020.
Los hallazgos se organizaron en torno a los tres objetivos específicos definidos en la revisión, como se expondrá a continuación.
Los hallazgos confirman que la persistencia de intervenciones no beneficiosas en pacientes críticos está relacionada con múltiples factores de orden estructural, cultural y legal. Entre los más destacados se encuentran la ausencia de protocolos institucionales, la presión familiar y el temor a repercusiones jurídicas, lo que conduce a prolongar la vida con tratamientos invasivos en escenarios sin posibilidades de recuperación [1, 3, 6, 7, 11-14, 21].
Complementariamente, otros estudios han subrayado el impacto de la digitalización de la medicina y la creciente tecnificación del cuidado crítico en los que la dependencia de dispositivos médicos refuerza prácticas de obstinación terapéutica [22]. A su vez, investigaciones recientes evidencian que la cultura biomédica en América Latina, fuertemente orientada a la curación, dificulta reconocer oportunamente la futilidad terapéutica y limita el desarrollo de espacios de deliberación ética [23-25].
La humanización del cuidado, entendida como eje fundamental en la práctica clínica, se plantea como un mecanismo que puede contrarrestar el encarnizamiento terapéutico al favorecer la comunicación empática y el respeto por la dignidad del paciente [26].
La integración de cuidados paliativos en UCI continúa siendo insuficiente y heterogénea en América Latina. Mientras países como Brasil y Chile han desarrollado experiencias institucionales que muestran impacto positivo; en otros casos, la falta de marcos normativos y programas estructurados representa una barrera significativa [2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 27, 28, 29].
Al comparar con otras regiones se observa que, incluso en sistemas de salud consolidados, persisten dificultades para integrar programas paliativos de manera temprana en unidades críticas, lo que se traduce en barreras organizativas y resistencias culturales [30]. Estudios interprofesionales demuestran que factores como la coordinación entre equipos y la educación continua son determinantes en la calidad de las decisiones al final de la vida [31].
De la misma forma, estrategias de humanización aplicadas en UCI pediátricas confirman que la incorporación de cuidados paliativos no solo mejora la comunicación con las familias, sino que fortalece la toma de decisiones compartidas [32].
Por su parte, experiencias clínicas en extubación paliativa evidencian que esta práctica, además de su carga técnica, requiere soporte ético y estructural para su correcta implementación [33].
Todo ello refuerza la necesidad de consolidar políticas regionales que garanticen el acceso equitativo y efectivo a los cuidados paliativos en entornos críticos.
Se identificaron deficiencias relevantes en la formación ética, clínica y comunicacional del personal sanitario, lo que limita su capacidad para enfrentar situaciones de final de vida en UCI. Entre las dificultades más frecuentes se destacan la escasa experiencia en la aplicación de voluntades anticipadas, la falta de entrenamiento en adecuación del esfuerzo terapéutico y el temor a la deliberación moral [17-20, 23-26, 34, 35].
A este panorama, se suma la necesidad de fortalecer competencias en comunicación empática, asertividad y trabajo interdisciplinario, aspectos que han sido señalados como esenciales para garantizar un cuidado humanizado y centrado en la persona [27, 34, 36]. Estudios recientes demuestran que el déficit de formación en bioética y cuidados paliativos en los programas de pregrado y posgrado limita la capacidad de los profesionales para tomar decisiones fundamentadas en valores y evidencia clínica [37, 38].
Revisiones sistemáticas confirman que los procesos de implementación de cuidados paliativos en UCI deben incluir protocolos institucionales y programas formativos que fortalezcan la ética clínica y reduzcan la variabilidad en la práctica [30, 31, 39].
La literatura también destaca que las experiencias clínicas en destete terminal y extubación en UCI de Europa y Norteamérica refuerzan la importancia de la capacitación ética y comunicacional como elementos clave para el acompañamiento familiar [40, 41].
En conjunto, los resultados muestran que la obstinación terapéutica en UCI de Sudamérica responde tanto a factores estructurales como culturales, mientras que la escasa integración de cuidados paliativos y la brecha formativa en competencias ético-clínicas perpetúan este fenómeno.
Este análisis reafirma la necesidad de reformar los modelos de atención crítica hacia enfoques centrados en la dignidad, la reflexión ética y la integración temprana de cuidados paliativos.
La Tabla 1 recoge las características de los 30 estudios provenientes de cinco bases de datos internacionales y regionales.
| Objetivo específico | Hallazgos relevantes | Referencias |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Factores que favorecen la persistencia de intervenciones no beneficiosas en UCI | La ausencia de protocolos, el temor a repercusiones legales, la presión familiar y la hegemonía biomédica, dificultan reconocer la futilidad terapéutica y favorecen la obstinación clínica. | [1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11-14, 21] |
| 2. Grado de integración de cuidados paliativos en UCI y su relación con la toma de decisiones | La integración de cuidados paliativos en UCI es baja y desigual en la región; aunque existen experiencias exitosas, persisten vacíos normativos, barreras institucionales y culturales que limitan su consolidación. | [2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 15, 16, 27, 28, 29] |
| 3. Competencias éticas y clínicas de los profesionales de salud frente al final de la vida | Se evidencian carencias en formación bioética, comunicación clínica y aplicación de AET, lo que dificulta decisiones compartidas y éticamente fundamentadas en el final de la vida. | [17-20, 23-26, 34, 35] |
Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que la persistencia de intervenciones no beneficiosas en UCI sudamericanas responde a un entramado de factores estructurales, culturales y formativos. Este escenario no solo refleja carencias en protocolos y guías clínicas, sino un enfoque biomédico centrado en la prolongación de la vida que dificulta reconocer la futilidad terapéutica.
Este panorama coincide parcialmente con lo descrito en Europa y Norteamérica donde también se han documentado tensiones éticas, pero la implementación de protocolos estandarizados, marcos regulatorios robustos y programas de formación ha reducido la variabilidad y favorecido prácticas de AET [42, 43].
Los resultados confirman que la obstinación terapéutica en Sudamérica se sostiene por la ausencia de guías institucionales, el temor a consecuencias legales y la presión familiar, lo que deriva en decisiones fragmentadas y frecuentemente alejadas de la proporcionalidad terapéutica. Desde una perspectiva bioética, este fenómeno revela una tensión entre los principios de beneficencia y no maleficencia en la que la continuidad de tratamientos invasivos puede incrementar el sufrimiento sin aportar beneficios reales [44].
De igual forma, la cultura médica predominantemente curativa retrasa el reconocimiento del carácter terminal de la enfermedad y limita la implementación de planes de cuidado anticipado. Estudios en contextos de cuidados de larga estancia han demostrado que la planificación anticipada de decisiones incluyendo voluntades anticipadas y conversaciones tempranas reduce la ansiedad familiar y facilita elecciones coherentes con los valores del paciente [45].
En este escenario, la obstinación terapéutica se sostiene por la ausencia de protocolos institucionales, el temor a repercusiones legales, la presión familiar y una cultura biomédica centrada en la curación. Esto muestra que el debate bioético no se ha traducido aún en políticas claras ni en formación clínica suficiente, lo que genera decisiones fragmentadas y muchas veces alejadas de la proporcionalidad terapéutica y la dignidad del paciente.
En Europa, la aplicación de guías de la Sociedad Europea de Cuidados Intensivos propone algoritmos claros para evaluar futilidad, retirar soporte vital y garantizar comunicación estructurada con la familia, herramientas que podrían adaptarse a los sistemas de salud sudamericanos para reducir la variabilidad clínica [40].
Por su parte, en Norteamérica, las recomendaciones del American College of Critical Care Medicine enfatizan en la toma de decisiones compartidas y el acompañamiento integral de la familia, prácticas replicables en nuestra región mediante formación en comunicación clínica y soporte psicosocial [38].
Los hallazgos dan respuesta al primer objetivo específico de esta investigación al confirmar que la persistencia de intervenciones no beneficiosas se sustenta en la falta de protocolos, la hegemonía de la cultura curativa y el temor legal, lo que perpetúa la obstinación terapéutica.
Respecto al segundo objetivo, se evidencia una baja integración de cuidados paliativos en UCI, con experiencias aisladas en algunos países, lo que sugiere la necesidad de incorporar de forma obligatoria programas paliativos desde el ingreso de pacientes críticos.
Finalmente, en relación con el tercer objetivo, la revisión muestra una brecha formativa en bioética, comunicación y competencias clínicas para el manejo del final de la vida, confirmando que sin un fortalecimiento de estas áreas será difícil implementar adecuaciones terapéuticas de manera sistemática [46, 47].
Estos hallazgos tienen implicaciones directas para la práctica clínica: urge implementar protocolos estandarizados de limitación del esfuerzo terapéutico, planes de comunicación estructurados y programas de educación continua en bioética y cuidados paliativos.
A nivel de políticas públicas, la OPS y la OMS recomiendan integrar los cuidados paliativos como parte esencial de la cobertura universal de salud, lo que implica garantizar su disponibilidad en todos los niveles de atención, incluidas las UCI [2, 5]. En la región, estas recomendaciones podrían traducirse en normativas que obliguen a evaluar la proporcionalidad terapéutica de manera interdisciplinaria y documentada, protegiendo tanto a pacientes como a equipos de salud.
La revisión muestra una producción científica desigual en Sudamérica, lo que limita la generalización de los hallazgos. Se requieren estudios multicéntricos que evalúen el impacto de programas de integración temprana de cuidados paliativos en indicadores clínicos, satisfacción familiar y bienestar del personal.
Asimismo, se recomienda investigar modelos pedagógicos para fortalecer competencias éticas y comunicacionales en los pregrados y posgrados en Medicina y Enfermería. Experiencias como las revisiones sobre extubación paliativa en entornos pediátricos demuestran la importancia de protocolos que incluyan soporte emocional para las familias y los equipos de salud [48, 49].
Una fortaleza del presente trabajo es la inclusión de literatura reciente y diversa, lo que permitió un análisis contextualizado y actualizado del fenómeno en Sudamérica. A su vez, el uso de herramientas de evaluación rigurosas (PRISMA, ENTREQ, CASP) [50] aportó solidez metodológica. Sin embargo, la disponibilidad desigual de publicaciones en algunos países pudo haber introducido un sesgo geográfico y limitar la generalización de los hallazgos.
Igualmente, la heterogeneidad metodológica de los estudios incluidos representa un desafío para la comparación directa de resultados.
La integración temprana y sistemática de los cuidados paliativos en UCI, acompañada de protocolos de AET y formación ética de los equipos, es indispensable para reducir la obstinación terapéutica y garantizar una atención centrada en la dignidad del paciente y el acompañamiento familiar. La región sudamericana tiene la oportunidad de adaptar modelos internacionales exitosos y convertirlos en políticas públicas que transformen la atención crítica en una práctica más ética, humana y sostenible.
La persistencia de intervenciones terapéuticas no beneficiosas en pacientes paliativos asistidos en UCI sudamericanas refleja limitaciones estructurales, formativas y culturales que impiden una atención centrada en la dignidad del paciente. La integración de cuidados paliativos en contextos críticos no solo es posible, sino necesaria para garantizar una medicina más ética, humana y sostenible.
La toma de decisiones en el fin de la vida debe fundamentarse en principios bioéticos, diálogo interdisciplinario y respeto por los valores del paciente. A largo plazo, el fortalecimiento de políticas públicas, protocolos institucionales y formación profesional será clave para reducir el encarnizamiento y mejorar la calidad de los cuidados en las UCI de la región.